Understanding the Complexity of Green Extractivism

Abstract

Green extractivism often refers to the appropriation of limited resources needed for the production or storage of renewable energy; however, this article explores another emerging dimension of green extractivism that does not necessarily involve extracting natural resources, but rather the appropriation of renewable resources. This article employs a case study of Western Sahara to derive the future implications of strengthening green extractivism connected to renewable energy transition, focusing on the following question: What are the possible future consequences of this approach? This article highlights the importance of comprehending and critically evaluating the current trajectory of the green extractivist approach to anticipating its potential consequences. In this regard, we gain insights into the necessity of understanding and critically considering the present trajectory of green extractivism, emphasizing the need to proactively address these issues to ensure a more equitable and sustainable approach to renewable energy and resource extraction in the coming years.

Introduction

Across the world, there is a growing momentum in initiatives aimed at mitigating climate change, which encompasses projects that facilitate the change towards green energy systems. This collective endeavor, however, is tied to the acceleration of what is known as ‘green extractivism’ (Dunlap & Verweijen, 2022). The term 'green extractivist' builds upon the concept of 'extractivism,' which historically originated from the exploitation of raw materials vital for the industrial development and prosperity of the Global North. This process is often carried out without considering the sustainability of these extractive projects or the depletion of the underlying resources (Bruna, 2023). Green extractivism embraces the same characteristics while focusing on renewable resources. Typically, green extractivism refers to the limited resources needed for the production or storage of renewable energy; however, this article explores another emerging dimension of green extractivism that does not necessarily involve extracting natural resources, but rather appropriation of renewable resources. It is important to study these emerging extractivist trends, as the extractivist mode of accumulation seems to be at the heart of the production policies of both neoliberal and progressive governments. This article uses a case study of renewable energy projects in Western Sahara to understand and point out the possible future implications of strengthening green extractivism connected to the renewable energy transition, focusing on the following question: What are the possible future consequences of green extractivism?

Green Extractivism and Tensions in Western Sahara

A short historical background

Spain colonized Western Sahara in 1884, driven by the presence of valuable resources on its territory. In the 1960s, the native inhabitants of the territory, the Sahrawis, formed an independence movement that led to an armed struggle against Spanish rule over the occupation of their territories. The Western Sahara conflict began in 1975 following the withdrawal of Spain, the former colonial power, from the territory. As Spain left the region uncertain, Morocco organized the "Green March," in which thousands of Moroccan civilians entered Western Sahara and asserted Moroccan sovereignty. However, this move was met with resistance from the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic (SADR) and its military wing, the Polisario Front, who claimed to represent the indigenous Sahrawi people and sought full independence. The conflict escalated into armed fighting between Morocco and the Polisario Front in the same year, and continued until the United Nations intervened and brokered a fragile ceasefire in 1975 (Ghaedi 2023). The United Nations called for a self-determination referendum, but its implementation was thwarted by disagreements regarding the eligibility criteria for participants in the referendum.

As of today, Sahrawis’ persistent aspirations for self-determination are yet to be realized, with the majority of Western Sahara currently occupied by Morocco. This conflict is still ongoing, leaving the status of Western Sahara unresolved (Ghaedi 2023). Western Sahara is often referred to as the last colony in Africa that is currently under Moroccan occupation. Morocco has a clear policy of populating occupied territories with Moroccan citizens and providing them with better educational and job opportunities. Moreover, Morocco is actively involved in exploiting the natural resources of the region, including fisheries, phosphate, solar, and wind energy (Smith, 2015; Alkhalili et al., 2023).

What makes Western Sahara crucial to the ongoing political discourse surrounding energy transition?

Owing to its arid climate, expansive landscapes, and ample sunlight, Western Sahara offers an optimal environment for the utilization of renewable energy sources. Western Sahara possesses abundant solar potential, with an average of 3,000 h of sunshine per year and solar radiation levels reaching up to 2,500 kWh/m2 annually, which makes this region one of the most suitable places on Earth for harnessing solar power. Along with its solar power potential, the region has considerable wind resources, as the coastal regions of the area are known for their robust winds with average speeds ranging from 7 to 11 m/s (REVE, 2023). According to the World Bank, the potential of RE in Western Sahara is enormous, as wind energy in particular is 169% higher than that of Morocco (WSRW, 2021).

The Morocco-Sahrawis conflict and renewable energy

While Morocco brands itself internationally as best in class on renewable energy as part of its commitments under the Paris Agreement, this is only possible because Morocco is occupying and profiting from West Sahara’s vast capacity for renewable energy.

While the conflict between Morocco and the indigenous population of Western Sahara has been ongoing for decades, green extractivism tied to renewable energy began in 2010 when the Moroccan National Office of Electricity and Drinking Water initiated a tender for the establishment of five wind farms, known as the 'Integrated Wind Energy Program' (WSRW, 2021). In March 2016, a consortium consisting of Siemens Wind Power, ENEL Green Energy (Italy), and Nareva (Morocco) won a bid. The entire project's operation and maintenance is governed by the Build, Own, Operate, and Transfer (BOOT) scheme, and is carried out under a public-private partnership with ONEE, the Energy Investment Company (SIE), and the King Hassan II Fund, all of which are state-owned (WSRW, 2021 in Alkhalili et al., 2023).

Of the five wind farms proposed, three were designated for the legitimate territory of Morocco, whereas the remaining two were slated for construction in the 'southern provinces,’ a term commonly employed by Morocco to refer to the unlawfully annexed region of Western Sahara. As of 2021, there were three functioning wind farms located in occupied Western Sahara, with a fourth in the process of construction and several others in the planning phase. Collectively, these wind farms are projected to generate a total capacity exceeding 1000 MW (WSWR, 2021). A new proposal for the construction of a 350 MW solar power plant in Boujdour was developed as part of Morocco's Solar Plan, which currently includes two operational solar power plants (WSWR, 2023).

The significance of this project is its potential to significantly contribute to Morocco's renewable energy goals. By 2030, it could provide up to 47% of the country's total wind capacity and between 9.70% and 32.64% of its total solar capacity, potentially towards the higher end of that range. This level of energy production would make the territory a significant source of energy for Morocco, undermining the UN's peace efforts in Western Sahara by limiting the expression of the Sahrawi people's rights to self-determination. The energy generated is utilized by industries that exploit the region's non-renewable resources and also serve as an attraction for settlers from Morocco owing to the availability of job opportunities. Hence, Morocco is heavily reliant on the energy generated in the Western Sahara region, and this reliance is expected to increase with recent investments in renewable energy projects.

How does the conflict represent a key example of green extractivism?

To give a response, it is vital to recall the fundamental principles of resource allocation that favor the Global North and are prevalent in any form of extractivism, leading to unequal development between the regions where resources are extracted and the regions where they are exported.

To illustrate embedded green extractivism within the conflict, it is necessary to delve deeper into the issue of unequal development, which is highlighted by the stark contrast between the harm caused to the local population of Western Sahara and the benefits enjoyed by European countries from Western Sahara's energy resources during the European decarbonization process.

Renewable energy projects located in Western Sahara operating on centralized grid systems have shown limited interest in involving the local population, which represents a persistent issue for indigenous people (Cantoni & Rignall, 2019 in Dunlap & Laratte, 2022). Moroccan officials justify the presence of large-scale renewable energy projects in Western Sahara by emphasizing the abundance and non-exhaustible nature of sun and wind resources. However, this argument overlooks the fact that such projects require significant land areas and disregards a central legal concern: the lack of consent or approval from the Sahrawi people, which renders these operations a violation of international law (WSRW, 2021). Moreover, the presence of these renewable energy projects in the occupied territories has attracted Moroccan settlers seeking employment, further marginalizing job opportunities for the Sahrawi people. Thus, the job market is highly competitive and requires specific qualifications. This situation exemplifies state-led land grabbing by corporations under the pretext of sustainable development, which leads to resource accumulation through the disposal of environmental ethics. This phenomenon represents a form of 'green grabbing,' where the appropriation of land and resources is justified through legal and market mechanisms to fulfill environmental goals (Alkhalili et al., 2023).

As Europe is accelerating its shift towards renewable energy sources, it is increasingly looking at Morocco as a supplier of green energy. Morocco has become an important partner of many EU countries, with agreements extending beyond renewable energy and covering topics such as migration and trade. This makes it challenging for the EU to confront Morocco's stance on Western Sahara given its intertwined relationship (Ghaedi, 2023).

The shift towards renewable energy and its potential of export to Europe have obscured the illegal occupation of Western Sahara while simultaneously making Morocco more reliant on the occupied territories. Currently, Morocco is connected to Spain through two high-voltage underwater cables with a total capacity of 700 MW, which also serves as the sole direct interconnector between Africa and Europe with a total capacity of 1.4 GW. Spain and Morocco have recently signed a memorandum of understanding to enhance their interconnection to 2.1 GW by 2026. Morocco and Portugal are in advanced talks regarding the construction of a 1 GW interconnector between the two countries. According to the Portuguese Secretary of State for Energy, the project has strong support from both the governments. The cable, which has a length of 250 km, is expected to cost €700 million, and is reportedly funded by European and African sources. Interconnectors are expected to be operational by 2030 (Alkhalili et al., 2023 ).

While Morocco is making strides towards renewable energy transitions, the majority of its plans and policies are being led by Western interests that promote dependence on foreign technology and knowledge. This has resulted in the liberalization and privatization of the energy sector, the influx of Western corporations to produce energy, and an increase in foreign investments and loans to finance the country's energy transition. (Ben Rouine and Roche, 2022; Hamza, 2016; Alkhalili et al., 2023 ). The article's claims were further strengthened by the ruling of the European Court of Justice on September 29, 2021, which deemed the EU's approach to Western Sahara illegal. The court ruled that any project or activity in Western Sahara must have the consent of Polisario, the UN-recognized representation of the Western Saharan people.

Conclusion and predictive implications stemming from the green extractivism

In summary, in Western Sahara, the development of wind and solar energy hinders the UN's efforts to establish peace, which undermines Sahrawi people's right to self-determination. Instead, this reinforces and legitimizes the Moroccan occupation, while demonstrating the uneven distribution of development resources, with European countries profiting from the ongoing conflict in Western Sahara between the indigenous population and Morocco. Moreover, the fact that justice and self-determination issues are being overlooked demonstrates how climate change mitigation policies can turn into sites of exploitative resource extraction practices. This creates the false perception that these practices are not only compatible with climate change but also necessary for its mitigation.

In conclusion, this analysis employs a case study to derive the future implications of green extractivism, emphasizing the importance of comprehending the present green extractivist approach to anticipate its potential consequences. By examining this case study, we gain insight into the necessity of understanding and critically evaluating the current trajectory of green extractivism to anticipate its future implications.

In this regard, it is essential to recognize that this approach carries the inherent risk of aggravating future conflicts, primarily arising from uneven development resulting from green extractivist policy approaches. Looking ahead, the future implications of green extractivism raise significant concerns regarding the exacerbation of social and economic inequalities. The displacement of indigenous and marginalized populations and further marginalization of vulnerable groups are potential consequences of these practices. This would further trigger geopolitical tensions in countries with control over valuable renewable energy resources. Disputes over access to and ownership of resources embedded in strong regional instability may lead to international conflicts. What is particularly worrisome is the potential escalation of regional violence that could result from these policies. Looking at the bigger picture, the continued emphasis on extractive models, even in the context of renewable energy, may delay the transition to a more sustainable and circular economy; therefore, it is essential to proactively address these issues to ensure a more equitable and sustainable approach to renewable energy and resource extraction in the coming years.

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