During a ceremony held in March in the city of Dharamsala, India, it was announced that the Dalai Lama, Buddhism’s spiritual leader, has recognised the tenth Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché. The Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché is the third most important spiritual figure in the Buddhist religion and the Spiritual Leader of Mongolia. The Dalai Lama identified as reincarnation of the spiritual figure an eight-year-old boy born in the US but from a Mongolian family, and grandchild of a former member of the Mongolian parliament. In Mongolia, the news was received with mixed feelings, especially concerning the possible repercussions this could have on Mongolia’s relations with China. Nowadays Tibetan Buddhism is merging its religious relevance with Political and Geopolitical interests, and Mongolia could play a pivotal role in its survival.
Buddhism as a form of Soft Power in Asia: China and India.
Buddhism, like many religions, is deeply intertwined in the political relations of the countries it's practised in, and especially since the end of World War II its geopolitical and diplomatic role has experienced a revival, also thanks to its widespread presence across the Asian continent. Tibetan Buddhism’s practice isn’t limited to the region of Tibet, annexed by China in 1950, this form of Buddhism is also widespread in Mongolia, and in Himalayan regions and states such as India, Nepal and Bhutan and it is playing a growing role in their diplomatic strategies. The use of Buddhism diplomacy on behalf of China has always been instrumental in mantaining relations with its neighbours, and it serves as an instrument to promote an idea of unity and shared values in the region. In 2011 the country funded a 3 billion USD project in the Lumbini region in Nepal, the place of birth of Buddha and core destination for Buddhist pilgrims from all over the world. Since Nepal adhered to the BRI, the two countries started also to hypothesize a railway to link Lhasa and Kathmandu. In 2015 China renewed its aid to develop Lumbini, which Nepal hopes to turn into a cultural, pilgrimage and development centre, with the specific hope of diverting the wave of Tibetan tourists directed to Dharamsala, the city where the Dalai Lama was exiled, to Nepal. Since the launch of the BRI, Buddhism has acquired another strategic role in China. In 2018, China hosted a two-day symposium in the Qinghai province, to advance the possibility of Tibetan Buddhism playing a role in the advancement of the BRI, using Tibet as a link for connecting China, Nepal and other South Asian and Southeast Asian countries and Buddhism as a balancing tool to smooth the economic nature of the project. An example of BRI-related Buddhism Diplomacy is the BRI-funded Lotus Tower in Columbus City, Sri Lanka. The tower, unveiled in 2019, is 350 metres tall, the tallest tv-tower in Asia, and its shape draws inspiration from Buddhism, Sinhalese’s majority main religion, and serves as a reminder of China’s and Sri Lanka’s Buddhist links and as a tool to smooth Sri Lanka’s lack of trust in China. Buddhism isn’t just a source for diplomatic cooperation among countries, China’s growing Buddhist influence is capturing the attention of India, and it's a great source of competition between the two. Buddhism is deeply rooted in the history of India, as its place of birth is the Indian subcontinent. In contemporary history Buddhism has been instrumental in the Indian post-independence diplomatic strategy, the country relied on the religious ties it had with its fellow Asian countries to revitalise diplomatic relations. The antagonism between China and India concerning religious matters began when India decided to allow the Dalai Lama to reside in its territory, becoming the main destination for the Tibetan Diaspora. India’s Buddhism-related soft power was particularly relevant under the Nehruvian leadership in the 50s. In 1952, the country hosted the International Buddhist Conference, which received more than 3000 delegates from all over the world. Nowadays India’s Buddhism soft power strategy has experienced a revival under the leadership of Modi. Since 2014 the country has engaged in different Buddhism-related initiatives, linked to its tourism industry and the academic world, a recent example is the inauguration of an airport in the state of Uttar Pradesh. In 2021 President Modi inaugurated an airport in Kushinagar, an important pilgrimage site for Buddhists, at the inauguration the President invited not only ambassadors from partner countries but also Buddhist monks from Thailand, Cambodia and South Korea among others. Under Modi, Buddhism-related initiatives in the country have drawn the attention of China. In 2017 China shared its disappointment when the Dalai Lama was invited to open a seminar on Buddhism in the 21st Century’ in Rajgir, Bihar, warning that the involvement of the Dalai Lama could worsen China-India relations. The use of Buddhism as a form of soft power strategy is proving effective in strengthening the link among Asian nations, which is why it could become a core aspect of Mongolian foreign policy.
Tibetan Buddhism and Mongolia’s soft-power development.
Mongolia’s diplomatic strategy has the difficult goal of trascending the country’s geographical position. Mongolia shares its borders with only two countries, China and Russia, with China being its biggest economic partner. This requires on its behalf, a great balancing ability, especially when it comes to diversifying economic partners. To expand its economic and diplomatic relations, Mongolia uses an approach known as the third-neighbour strategy, which consists of boosting relations with foreign partners beyond those who share its borders, not only through political and economic channels but also cultural channels, stressing the importance of cultural heritage as the country’s source of soft-power. One of Mongolia’s third neighbours is India, the two countries define themselves as Spiritual Neighbours, recalling their shared Buddhist values. Buddhism spread across Mongolia through Nepal in the 13th century and one of the main factors in the diffusion of the religion, especially in its Tibetan form, was the conversion of the rulers of the Yuan dynasty. In the following centuries, the religion merged with Mongolian culture, linking itself to the countrys’ cultural identity, until Mongolia became part of the Soviet Union. Under Soviet rule, Buddhism was harshly suppressed, with most of the Mongolian temples destroyed and the monks purged. Its contemporary revival began in the 70s, with the foundation of the Buddhist Theological Institute and the revival of Mongolian-Tibetan relations, during the 70s the country was visited by the Dalai Lama two times. Mongolia officially established freedom of religion in its 1992 post-soviet constitution and between 1992 and 1998 the country experienced a drastic resurfacing of Buddhist practices. Open monasteries went from one, the only one operating during the Soviet era, to more than 120 in less than a decade, and Buddhism started to receive the support of the government that encouraged exchanges between Mongolian monks and Tibetan monks exiled in India. Nowadays Buddhism in its Tibetan form is deeply rooted in Mongolian culture, history, and post-soviet democratic identity, being the most practised religion in the country. In 2021 approximately 59% of the Mongolian population declared to be religious, 87% of which declared to be Buddhist. Currently, the country is pursuing Vision 2050, a long-term sustainable development policy that among its goals lists the need for the country to diversify its economy from the mining sector and the need to promote and protect shared national values, which could signify increased attention in the management of Buddhist-linked national heritage. Especially in terms of the development of the tourism sector and the promotion of its culture abroad, Buddhism might experience its next great revival in the country. In 2014 Mongolia submitted a request to insert the Baldan Bereeven Monastery among UNESCO World Heritage sites, built in 1813, listing in the justification the deep significance the Monastery has concerning Mongolian Buddhist and Nomadic cultural heritage. During its most prosperous time, the temple registered about 5000-7000 lamas. The nomination of the next Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché, might play a role in further establishing Mongolia’s role as a location where Tibetan Buddhism can be preserved, enhancing the country’s chances of becoming a destination of pilgrimage and contributing to the development of its post-pandemic tourism sector, its economic diversification and to the creation of Buddhism-based Mongolian soft-power. Shared cultural values are an instrumental tool in establishing a soft power strategy, especially for a country like Mongolia which cannot count on the geographical factor to diversify its foreign relations.
Buddhism in China-Mongolia relations.
The main reason why the news of the recognition of the Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché by the Dalai Lama was received with mixed feelings among the Mongolian public was the concern of possibly angering China. China and Mongolia established diplomatic relations in 1949, and today despite political differences China is Mongolia’s most important economic partner, being the destination of most of its coal and copper exports. According to China Briefing, Mongolia also greatly benefited from being part of the BRI, which has created approximately 100.000 jobs in the country. In 2022 their relations experienced a boost thanks to the state visit of Mongolian President Khurelsukh to Beijing, where he met President Xi and the two leaders agreed to boost their countries’ relations in key areas like economy, trade, energy, mining, and connectivity. President Xi also mentioned that China is ready to cooperate in the afforestation sector and is open to discuss the establishment of a China-Mongolia research center. While Sino-Mongolian relations appear to be smooth, Buddhism has played a divisive role in the past. In 2006 China canceled flights between Ulaanbaatar and Beijing, and in 2016 it imposed new fees on commodity shipments and delayed meetings with Mongolian officials, both measures were taken as a response to Mongolia hosting the Dalai Lama in its territory. Since the annexation of Tibet, China tried to establish measures to control the religious identity of the region, seen as a main factor in increasing separatist sentiments in the province. Among the measures put in place by the CCP, there is attempted control over the identification of the reincarnation of Lamas. The Dalai Lama is currently considered a dangerous separatist leader and China hopes to strengthen its hold over Tibet by having the position covered in the future by a Monk approved by the Communist Party. This is also why China doesn’t see auspiciously the possibility of leading Tibetan Buddhism’s figures being recognised outside of its national territory or recognised without its consent. Mongolia could prove instrumental in the Chinese quest to become the sole centre of Buddhism. Specifically, the country has so far tried to exploit internal divisions among members of the Mongolian clergy to reduce and limit the influence of the Dalai Lama and strengthen the process of creating a sinified Tibetan Buddhism. The Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché is the third most important figure in Tibetan Buddhism and could play an important role in searching for and identifying the next reincarnation of the Dalai Lama, therefore it could even be interpreted by China as an attempt to interfere with what the country considers internal matters, hence the fear on behalf of Mongolian citizens that the news could anger their regional neighbour. So far China has not put in place any measures against Mongolia. The growing ties between the countries and the recent positive meeting between their foreign ministers in May 2023, which resulted in the renewed intention of the two to boost their relations, suggest that this time China won’t recur to economic sanctions. However, the choice of the Khalkha Jetsun Dhampa Rinpoché, might throw Mongolia into a geopolitical challenge, whether the country desires that or not.
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L'Autore
Alessandra Tamponi
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Tag
Cina Mongolia India Relazioninternazionali politicainternazionale Buddismo softpower Asia e Pacifico