ABSTRACT
This paper discusses lithium's significance as a crucial mineral in the transition to a low-carbon future. Lithium, a chemical element of the alkali metal group, is currently gaining greater importance due to its high economic and technological significance. First, this paper investigates the technical aspects of lithium extraction–ore mining and brine extraction–and their environmental implications. Indeed, there are currently two main ways of acquiring lithiumAfter having analyzed these technical aspects, this paper maps the geopolitical implications of lithium extraction. Indeed, the cruciality and scarcity of lithium have created a growing rivalry among states seeking to secure uninterrupted access. China and the US are at the forefront of this competition since both countries have core interests and ambitions to expand their vehicle manufacturing sectors. It is probable that in the following years that there will be an increase above all in brine extractions and this might led to further implications, both geopolitical and environmental.
Authors: Margherita Camurri (Senior Researcher), Alessandra Colasanti (Senior
Researcher), Klarisa Stafa (Junior Researcher), Erica Trotta (Junior Researcher).
Mondo Internazionale, G.E.O. - Environment
- Introduction
Worldwide depletion of fossil fuels, rapid demographic growth, rising energy demand, and impacts of climate change are calling for alternative and sustainable solutions to development. In particular, the focus of the imminent global energy transition is on renewable technologies, and indeed numerous efforts are being made to promote the development of high-tech and clean-tech products, for instance in the field of information and communication technologies (Greim, Solomon & Breyer, 2020). The dimensions of this process have led to a sharp increase in the demand for some mineral resources that, although are intrinsically scarce, are deemed to be pivotal for the world’s energy transition. In this context, the concept of “critical minerals” has been coined (Stamp, Lang & Wäger, 2012). Although there is no agreed definition for such raw materials, scholars usually use this term to refer to the importance of the raw material and the subsequent impacts of potential supply shortfalls.
An example of critical minerals is the element lithium, which is currently gaining more and more importance both in the context of energy system transformation and for new green technologies and electric mobility. Discovered in 1817 by a Swedish chemist, lithium is a chemical element of the first group in the periodic table, the alkali metal group. Among all its unique properties, it is important to mention that it is the lightest solid metal, it has very low density, a high thermal conductivity, and a high calorific (heat) capacity (Britannica, 2022).
Despite its low supply and possible substitutes for its applications, lithium is today considered to be a critical metal due to its high economic and technological significance and its exceptional properties. If, in the past, lithium was primarily known for its use in the thermonuclear field (hydrogen bombs) and in the health sector (for the treatment of bipolar disorder), at present times around 50% of lithium production is used for batteries and about 30% is employed in the ceramics and glass industry. Notably, in the past years, the global demand for lithium has significantly risen because the metal has become pivotal for the development of industrial products, especially batteries for portable devices (such as laptops and cell phones) and, above all, key components for electric vehicles. Indeed, it was mostly due to the shift from internal combustion engines to electric vehicles that lithium came to be a critical resource in modern technology (Brooks, 2020). Estimates show that in 2020 more than 70% of the total demand for lithium was employed in the production of batteries. What makes lithium appealing are its unique properties: being the lightest and the most highly reducing of metals, it produces batteries that are 50% greater than conventional ones. For these reasons, in the past years, the demand for lithium has almost doubled and it is expected to further increase in the future due to the expansion of the market of electric vehicles and electronic devices (Talens, Villalba, & Ayres, 2013).
Due to the numerous explorations that have been launched recently because of the increasing demand for batteries, the amount of identified lithium has increased worldwide and now it is estimated to reach around 89 million tons. Notably, the countries that host the largest amount of lithium are Bolivia (21 million tons), Argentina (19 million tons), the US (9.1 million tons), Chile (9.8 million tons), Australia (7.3 million tons) and China (5.1million tons), followed by Congo, Canada, and Germany in minor quantities (US Geological Survey, 2022). More specifically, the major sources of lithium are found in brine lake deposits and pegmatites, which are coarse-grained igneous rocks formed by the crystallization of magma in the crust (Talens, Villalba, & Ayres, 2013).
Given the importance of lithium in today’s economic and technological sectors, lithium production security has become a priority concern for several companies in Asia, Europe and in the US.
2. Lithium Extraction: Methods and Implications
With 100,000 metric tons of lithium extracted globally every year (Statista, 2021) and a growing demand, some are talking about ‘lithium rush’, foreseeing a huge growth in lithium extraction and use in the next ten years. Indeed, “lithium carbonate demand could rise above two million tonnes by 2030 – over four times the amount produced in 2020” (energyx.com). Despite the excitement for this economic opportunity, environmentalists remain skeptical about lithium exploitation, starting from its extraction process. In order to assess the environmental impact of lithium, first and foremost it is necessary to better understand the extraction process from a technical point of view.
a. The technical aspects of lithium extraction
“By definition, lithium extraction is a set of chemical processes where lithium is isolated from a sample and converted to a saleable form of lithium, generally a stable yet readily convertible compound such as lithium carbonate. Most lithium extraction processes entail some form of mining to reach underground deposits of lithium-rich minerals or brines.”
Samotech.com
There are currently two main ways of acquiring lithium: ore mining and brine extraction.
As far as brine extraction is concerned, lithium is obtained through a long evaporation process. Indeed, minerals contained in the soil (typically found under dried volcanic lakes) fall into subsurface water, through a process known as ‘leaching’ of volcanic rocks. This water thus becomes rich in dissolved salts such as potassium, sodium, boron and lithium. It is at this point that the brine, i.e. water with high salinity, is formed. In order to extract lithium from the brine, the water is pumped from these natural wells, stocked in large ponds and then left to evaporate for several months, until only the minerals remain. Through several chemical processes such as ‘precipitation’, ‘absorption’ and ‘solvent extraction’, the final result is–in most cases–a concentrate of lithium carbonate. Due to its cost effectiveness and operational simplicity, this particular method is currently the most productive (Xu et al., 2016). Because concentrates of lithium can be found in so-called salars (dried volcanic lakes),he greatest mines can be found in South America, namely Chile, Argentina and Bolivia, which make up for more than half of the global lithium production. As previously mentioned, they are followed by Australia and China, while with some surprise, the USA only has one commercial mine currently active in Esmeralda County, Nevada (USGS, 2020).
Ore mining is similar to traditional mining, as lithium is extracted from hard volcanic rocks known as ‘pegmatites’ (e.g., spodumene, lepidolite, petalite). Due to its costs, the little accessibility and the introduction of rigid environmental policies, ore mining is giving way to brine extraction, accounting for a small portion of the global lithium production. Currently, it is mainly used in Australia.
The advantages of ore mines is that they are sometimes richer in lithium than salars, and there is no lithium loss, which conversely happens during brine extraction.
However, ore mines are hard to access, and the extraction methods are more invasive and complex than those used in salars. This implies that more machinery, energy, materials and chemicals are needed for the extraction, doubling the cost of brine.
Generally speaking, once the mineral material is extracted from the mine, it is heated and pulverized. It then undergoes several chemical processes; it is combined with chemical reactants, then heated, filtered and concentrated. As in brine extraction, the final result is sellable lithium carbonate. Of course, depending on the kind of minerals present in the deposit, the process varies and adapts to the soil.
From an environmental perspective, this process produces wastewater, which is treated for reuse or disposal.
It is interesting to notice that some particular lithium extraction processes are patented, for instance the so-called Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) or the LiTAS technology of EnergyX. This gives us the idea of both the variety and the economic value of such processes.
III. Environmental and health implications
a. Resources exploitation
Despite the reassuring remarks from mining companies, environmentalists are extremely skeptical about the sustainability of the mining process.
Firstly, brine extraction demands huge quantities of water. Furthermore, mines are ‘invasive’ and may jeopardize local ecosystems (that is the case in the Arizona desert, for instance, where some plants have adapted to the harsh climate and cannot be found anywhere else on the planet).
Furthermore, the heatwaves and droughts that are becoming ever more frequent because of climate change show the importance of water and its finiteness. Although some argue that pumped water is not potable and would not be used for agriculture or other activities, the debate is highly controversial. The following explanation from the Volkswagen website highlights the lain loot point:
“It is undisputed that no drinking water is needed for the lithium production itself. What is disputed, on the other hand, is the extent to which the extraction of saltwater leads to an influx of fresh water and thus influences the groundwater at the edge of the salars.” (Volkswagenag.com)
However, several cases show that caution is of the utmost importance: in Chile, the Salar de Atacama has seen 65% of the region’s water consumed for mining procedures, causing havoc for farmers and ranchers who live in the area (Egan, 2021). This is a reminder that water scarcity not only brings drought, but also famine, since it affects agriculture and livestock breeding.
Water pollution from chemicals (sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid and other waste from chemical processes) is another risk. As a matter of fact, during the extraction process lithium is processed in order to be separated from ores or purified from other materials. This may cause the chemicals to leak back into the ground and, more gravely, to reach water deposits. This hypothesis is not far-fetched:
“In 2016, the Liqi River flowing to the east of the Tibetan plateau was contaminated with toxic chemicals from a mine site up-river, killing fish and thoroughly damaging the local ecosystem”. (Institute for Energy Research, 2020)
This brings us to the next point, namely loss of biodiversity. As we have seen, the indirect effects on the biosphere can be significant, since ecosystems are closely connected, and damage can seldom be geographically contained. More directly, the land used for lithium extraction is considerable, and would normally host a great variety of plants and animals (arguably, this is less the case for brine extraction). It is a matter of finding the optimal trade-off: the greater the land used for mining, the smaller the area animals can live in (Sonter et al, 2018).
The same goes for flora: deforestation is a real risk, one which is by the way strongly connected with loss of biodiversity and soil erosion. The latter is a particularly concrete risk in the case of ore mining. Indeed, the soil protects the ecosystem from extreme events such as floods and avalanches (in case of mountain territories), but also regulates greenhouse gas emissions (B. C. Ball, 2013)
Socially speaking, soil consumption may also cause social tensions, especially if deposits lie below the territory of indigenous people, as it may be the case in the USA and in the Amazon rainforest.
Also, heavy machinery is needed for the several stages of the process. Some examples include dust control systems to comply with local regulations, as dust may endanger workers’ health. In addition, all this equipment runs on fossil fuels, which is a contradiction: companies would use huge quantities of fossil fuel in order to make batteries for EV (Electric Vehicles).
b. Impacts on human health during extraction phase
Lastly, we may wonder what impact lithium mining has on human health. Concerning brine extraction, the human impact of the process is minimal. As a matter of fact, the extraction process happens naturally through the heat of the sun, and the chemical processes are only carried out at a later stage.
Conversely, the ore mining has a higher human cost, mainly due to the fact that workers have to extract the ore on site and are therefore exposed to chemicals and dust.
Indirectly, water and air pollution caused by lithium extraction is extremely dangerous for human health.
Indeed, underground water reservoirs may be contaminated by the chemicals used to isolate lithium from other minerals, and then flow into drinking water used by local populations. The Liqi River case mentioned above clearly shows this rik.
Likewise, air contamination, especially caused by ore mining, is a critical factor. During the extraction, people are exposed to great quantities of dust, and air contaminated with chemicals could reach limitrophe areas and affect not only workers directly implied in the extraction process, but also the rest of the population.
The impacts depend on and are proportional to the quantity of chemicals, dust and to the degree of exposure, but they must be taken into account.
IV. The Geopolitics of Lithium
Climate change is putting mounting pressure on the global economy to decarbonize and rely on renewable energy, instead of fossil fuels, to meet the energy demand worldwide. Specifically, technological advancements and increasing electric car demand are fueling the race for lithium batteries. In the upcoming years, for instance, the automobile industry is planning to increase the production of electric vehicles (EVs) as part of ongoing efforts to reduce CO2 emissions. Potentially, this means that lithium could become as crucial as oil has been over the last 50 years: the new “white gold”, as some refer to it (Moccia, 2021).
Rather than improving international relations, the limited availability of this metal is causing further stress as nations become aware of its scarcity. The need for environmentally friendly technologies is increasing contention and geopolitical rivalry among states seeking to secure uninterrupted access to alternative green resources (Kalantzakos, 2019). Indeed, it is very likely that the country that has a dominant position in the lithium supply chain and the potential to exploit it strategically, will have a significant impact on geopolitics and the global economy. This explains why global control over lithium supplies is becoming one of the major geopolitical issues of the 21st century.
a. USA & China Rivalry
China and the United States are the two major players in lithium geopolitics. Both countries have set ambitious plans to become the largest electric vehicle manufacturers in the world. Therefore, it goes without saying that the development of materials for lithium batteries is of the utmost importance for both Washington and Beijing. As a matter of fact, in May 2018 the US Department of the Interior published a list of 35 critical minerals, including lithium, pursuant to President Trump's Executive Order 13817 - A Federal Strategy to Ensure Secure and Reliable Supplies of Critical Minerals. Accordingly, the administration was devoted to ensuring uninterrupted access to all of them (U.S. Interior Department, 2018).
China, where more than half of the world's production is located, is also making significant investments in lithium mining. This implies that Beijing has built up stockpiles both in anticipation of increased demand and for strategic reasons. The BP Statistical Review of 2021 estimates that Chinese lithium reserves account for 7.9% of the world's lithium reserves, while American lithium reserves account for 4.0% (Rapier, 2022). Globally, China's control over lithium supply has become a geopolitical concern. Indeed, American fears over Beijing's goal of reaching strategic parity with Washington have been rekindled by the speed of Chinese efforts.
However, China did not achieve this degree of predominance by chance. The PRC government has spent a total of more than $60 billion on building the lithium industry over the past decade. Conversely, American investments have significantly lagged (Rapier, 2022). This allowed China to build a robust lithium supply chain, surpassing the United States by 15 times in 2020 (Garside, 2022).
Overall, despite both countries having lithium reserves, it is possible that the quantity available will not be enough to meet the respective targets of industrial development. For this reason, both Beijing and Washington have often turned their attention abroad, where the world's largest deposits of lithium are located.
b. Lithium-rich countries
South America and Australia hold the majority of the world's natural supply of lithium. Chile is the country with the highest lithium production from brine, whereas Australia is the country with the highest lithium production from pegmatites (Bradley et al., 2017). As for South America, the majority of lithium on earth is extracted in the Andes, in the so-called lithium triangle: Chile, Bolivia, and Argentina. Currently, Chile holds the largest reserves (8.6 million tons), followed by Australia (2.8 million tons), and Argentina (1.7 million tons) (Moccia, 2021).
Separate remarks are needed for Bolivia. The country is home to the most famous and largest lithium deposit in the world: the Salar de Uyuni. This is nothing more than a huge ancient lake that has dried up as a result of evaporation, which left layers of salt deposits. Salar de Uyuni has the potential to make Bolivia the world's largest lithium reserve. Unfortunately, Bolivia's current delicate political situation is preventing the exploitation of these enormous reserves. Initially, the former President Evo Morales opposed the exploitation of lithium reserves by foreign companies, believing it would benefit the local community to have the state controlling the reserves. Consequently, having seen the immense advantages lithium had for other states in the lithium triangle, he decided to invest in this sector further. This resulted in Morales signing contracts for lithium development with a Chinese and German company. (Ramos, 2019). Then, as early as November 2019, a week before Morales announced his resignation as president, the contract with the German company was terminated, prompting some to speculate that Morales was the main obstacle to Bolivia's lithium extraction. (Johnson& Palmer, 2019.)
Overall, nationalizing lithium would be a difficult process. The extraction and processing of this metal is very expensive, it requires advanced abilities, scientific understanding, technical advancement, and most importantly, adequate that only great powers are able to exploit. As a result, lithium-rich countries often do not fully benefit from their wealth since they cannot dispose of it all (Moccia, 2021). The United States and China are strongly contending for the treasure hidden in Bolivia. Until 2019, China appeared to have an edge. Nevertheless, at a later stage, Bolivian political changes and the current realignment with the West, have slightly changed the situation in favor of the United States. Monitoring the situation is the only way to determine what could happen next.
CONCLUSIONS
Renewable technologies are the main focus of the impending global energy transition, and several initiatives are being undertaken to encourage the development of high-tech and clean-tech products, such as in the field of information and communication technology. Due to the scope of this process, there has been an incredible rise in the demand for particular naturally limited mineral resources that are thought to be essential to the global energy transition. An example of the so-called critical minerals is the element lithium. This chemical element belongs to the alkali metal group and due to its exceptional proprieties is considered to be a crucial metal in the context of energy transition.
Lithium is mainly employed in the technology sector; indeed, it is pivotal for the development of industrial products, especially batteries for portable devices (such as laptops and cell phones) and, above all, key components for electric vehicles. Being the lightest and most reducible of all metals, lithium creates batteries that are 50% greater than conventional ones, which is what makes it highly sought. Therefore, this increased demand for lithium has amplified explorations; notably, Bolivia (21 million tons), Argentina (19 million tons), the US (9.1 million tons), Chile (9.8 million tons), Australia (7.3 million tons), and China (5.1 million tons) are the countries that contain the most lithium, with tiny amounts also being held by Congo, Canada, and Germany (US Geological Survey, 2022). More specifically, pegmatites and brine lake deposits are the main sources of lithium. Lithium may now be obtained primarily by brine extraction and ore mining. Despite the excitement surrounding this business potential, environmentalists continue to have doubts about the use of lithium, beginning with the extraction method.
Lithium extraction must first and foremost be better understood from a technological standpoint in order to evaluate its environmental impact. Extraction of lithium impacts also human health, especially as far as the ore mining is concerned. The impacts deriving from ore mining extraction are direct and indirect: in the direct impacts it is worth mentioning the explosion to chemicals and dust of the workers, while indirect impacts concern primarily water and air pollution.
On a geopolitical level, the need for environmentally friendly technologies is escalating conflict and competition among states that want to guarantee constant access to green resources. In particular China and the United States are the two main stakeholders. Chinese lithium reserves are projected to make up 7.9% of global lithium reserves, according to the BP Statistical Review of 2021, while American lithium reserves make up 4%. Overall, even if both countries have lithium reserves, it's probable that the amount may not be sufficient to achieve their own goals for industrial development. For this reason, Beijing and Washington have frequently focused on other countries, where the largest lithium reserves are found. As for the production of lithium in itself, the amount of lithium in the earth (as well as groundwater) in the US might be adequate to satiate rising demand. However, we lack the time to quickly increase our mining capacity (let alone our capacity to refine lithium or produce batteries) so that we are not reliant on imports.
In light of this situation, the exploitation of regional development in South America will be crucial. The increase in the lithium demand will lead to an increase of lithium extraction; in particular, in the following years it is much probable that brine extractions will increase more than ore mining. All this will not happen without further environmental implications.
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